Vaccine switched in 'milestone' towards ending polio.

More than 150 countries have begun switching to a different polio vaccine - an important milestone towards polio eradication, health campaigners say.

The new vaccine will target the two remaining strains of the virus under a switchover 18 months in the planning.

There were just 74 cases of the paralysing disease in 2015 and there have been 10 so far this year.

All of the cases were in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Africa has been free of polio for more than a year.

Switching the vaccine from one successfully used to fight polio for more than 30 years is a huge logistical exercise.

Thousands of monitors

Thousands of people will monitor the changeover in 155 countries during the next fortnight.

It is taking effect mainly in developing countries, but also in richer ones such as Russia and Mexico.

The new vaccine will still be given as drops in the mouth, so healthcare workers will not need fresh training.

It will no longer include a weakened version of type 2 polio virus, which was eradicated in 1999.

'Rare mutations'

Dr Stephen Cochi, from the US-based Centers for Disease Control (CDC), said: "The current vaccine contains live weakened virus relating to three types of polio.

"But we don't need the type 2 component, as it's not in the world any longer.

"And in very rare cases it can mutate and lead to polio, through what's called circulating vaccine-derived virus.

"So removing type 2 from the vaccine takes away that risk - and ensures we have a vaccine which will work better dose by dose."

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What is polio?

• Polio, or poliomyelitis, mainly affects children aged under five
• It is a highly infectious disease caused by a virus. It invades the nervous system and can cause total paralysis in a matter of hours
• Initial symptoms include fever, fatigue, headache, vomiting, stiffness of the neck and pains in the limbs
• One in 200 infections leads to irreversible paralysis. Among those paralysed, 5% to 10% die when their breathing muscles become immobilised
• Today, only two countries - Afghanistan and Pakistan - remain polio-endemic, down from more than 125 in 1988

Ecuador earthquake of 7.8 magnitude kills dozens

A powerful 7.8-magnitude earthquake in Ecuador has killed at least 77 people and injured more than 500, Vice-President Jorge Glas says.

The quake, Ecuador's largest since 1979, hit at 18:58 on Saturday (23:58 GMT) near the northern town of Muisne.

Widespread severe damage is reported, with a bridge destroyed as far south as Guayaquil about 300km (190 miles) away.

President Rafael Correa, who is flying back from a trip to Italy, has decreed a state of emergency.

He said: "This is a very painful test. I ask the country to be calm and united... Let's be strong; we will overcome this."

He added: "Roads and hospitals can be rebuilt; you cannot recover lost lives. That's what hurts the most."

Who is Virat Kohli?

Virat Kohli is an Indian international cricketer. He is a right-handed batsman and occasional right-arm medium pace bowler. He is the current captain of the Indian team in Test cricket and vice-captain in limited overs formats. He was born on November 5, 1988 (age 27), in Delhi, India. His height is 1.75 m. His siblings are Vikash Kholi and Bhavna Kholi. His parents are Saroj Kohli and Prem Kohli. His won many awards but the most prominent is ICC one day international player of the year Award.

writa a program to take input from user and printout it's factorial as an output.

#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main ()
{
int n;
long int fact;
cout << "Enter any number which you want to printout it's factorial ";
cin >> n;
fact = 1;
for ( ; n>=1; n--)
fact = fact * n;
cout << fact ;
getch ();
}

 for example:

if you enter 5
it's answer will be:      5*4*3*2*1 = 120


Output:
Enter any number which you want to printout it's factorial 5
120

What is literature?

noun

noun: literature; plural noun: literatures

1. written works, especially those considered of superior or lasting artistic merit.

   "a great work of literature"

   synonyms:

   written works, writings, (creative) writing, literary texts, compositions,letters, belles-lettres; More

   • books and writings published on a particular subject.

     "the literature on environmental epidemiology"

     synonyms:

     publications, published writings, texts, reports, studies, relevant works "the literature on prototype theory"

   • leaflets and other printed matter used to advertise products or give advice.

     "advertising and promotional literature"

     synonyms:

     printed matter, brochures, leaflets, pamphlets, circulars, flyers,handouts, handbills, mailshots, bulletins, documentation, publicity,blurb, notices, information, data, facts; More

Origin

late Middle English (in the sense ‘knowledge of books’): via French from Latin litteratura, from littera.

brief account on major industries of Pakistan.

A brief introduction about the major/large scale industries of Pakistan is given along the following lines.

1. Textile Industry

The textile industry is the largest industry of Pakistan. At the time of partition, Pakistan received only 17 textile units in its share. The production of textile was very low and a large quantity of textile had to be imported to meet the domestic, requirements. Now, Pakistan is a prominent country for the production of textile. The textile industry accounts for 17.3% of value added, 32.2% of industrial employment and 60% of total exports. There were 354 mills operating in the textile industry in 2001-02. The installed capacity of spindles was 8841 thousand and installed capacity of looms was 10 thousand in the same year. The production of cloth was 558 million square meters by the organized mills sector. Various steps have been taken by the Government for the growth of the textile industry e.g. the provision of incentives, freedom to acquire technical assistance from abroad, directly financing institutions and improvements in management and labour efficiency etc.

2. Vegetable Ghee and Cooking Oil Industry

At the time of independence oil industry was very poor. Now there are 150 vegetable ghee and cooking oil factories in Pakistan. Out of these 26 are in the public sector with an installed capacity of 500 thousand tonnes of ghee and cooking oil. Total production of ghee and cooking oil was 774 thousand tonnes in 2001-02. A large quantity of cooking oil is imported to meet the domestic needs. The decline in the production of vegetable ghee is due to lower scale turnover and operational difficulties & closing down of two units in N.W.F.P.

3. Sugar Industry

In 1947, there were only 2 sugar factories in Pakistan, but at present there are 77 sugar factories in the industry. During the year 2001-02 total production of sugar was 3247 thousand tonnes. Revolutionary steps are required to expand the working capacity of this industry, which must be expanded and facilities should be provided to farmers for the production of better crops.

4. Fertilizer Industry

There are 10 fertilizer units (6 in the public sector and 4 in the private sector) in the country, having an installed capacity of 42,98,000 N. Tonnes (16,74,000 N. Tonnes in the public sector and 26,24,000 N. Tonnes is the private sector). Total production of fertilizers in 2001-02 was 5012 thousand tonnes. The low production was caused, by operational difficulties, decline in working hours and power failure/load shedding. A number of concessions are provided for the growth of this industry.

5. Cement Industry

At present 24 cement factories are operating in the country, out of these 4 factories are in public sector and 20 are in private sector. The installed capacity of cement is 16,300 thousand tonnes out of which 9935 thousand tonnes of cement was produced in 2001-02. This industry has been allowed duty free import of plant and machinery.

6. Chemical Industry

There are 12 chemical factories in the country producing, soda ash, sulphuric acid, caustic soda, chlorine gas and other chemicals. The contribution of the chemical industry towards GNP is only 3%. This industry is not fulfilling domestic requirements, so a large amount of foreign exchange is spent on the import of different chemicals every year.

7. Jute Industry

At the time of independence there was not a single jute factory in Pakistan. By the cooperation of PIDC, 32 factories were setup in East Pakistan and one in West Pakistan by the time of separation of East Pakistan in 1971. At present there are 12 Jute mills in the country. Total production of Jute goods was 81.7 thousand tonnes during 2001-02. Now a large quantity of Raw Jute is imported from China and Bangladesh every year to meet the domestic requirement.

8. Engineering Goods Industry

The engineering goods and capital goods produced domestically are very helpful for economic development of a country. This industry was given importance in the 3rd five year plan. Now we have 4 heavy engineering industries. There are

(1) Heavy Mechanical Complex, Texila

(2) Heavy Foundry Project, Taxila

(3) Pakistan Machine Tools Factory, Landhi

(4) Pakistan Steel Mills, Karachi.

All these are in the public sector. There are also a number of light and medium engineering goods industries producing a lot of items.

9. Ship Building Industry

Ships are constructed at Karachi. A number of small and large ships are made by Karachi yard and Engineering works. This factory was establised by PIDC. Now Pakistan is selling ships and boats abroad. In all the five year plans, this industry is given much importance.

10. Woolen and Worsted Textile Industry

There are 16 woolen mills in Pakistan. These are located at Karachi, Nowshera, Lawrencepur, Quaidabad and Hamai. This industry is not only meeting the worsted and woolen yam requirements of the country, but it is also exporting a large quantity of worsted cloth and carpets to foreign countries.

11. Cigarette Industry

At present 22 factories are producing cigarettes and Biri. Our country is self sufficient in the production of cigarettes. The raw tobacco used in the manufacturing of cigarettes is produced domestically. During the year 2001-02, 55,318 million cigarettes were produced in the country.

Seven new Wonders of the World

New7Wonders of the World (2000–2007) was an initiative started in 2000 as a Millennium project to choose Wonders of the World from a selection of 200 existing monuments.^[1] The popularity poll was led by Canadian-Swiss Bernard Weber and organized by the New7Wonders Foundation based in Zurich, Switzerland, with winners announced on 7 July 2007 in Lisbon.^[2][3]

The New7Wonders Foundation claimed that more than 100 million votes were cast through the Internet or by telephone. Voting via the Internet was limited to one vote for seven monuments per person/identity, but multiple voting was possible through telephone.^[4] Hence the poll was considered unscientific.^[5] According to John Zogby, founder and current President/CEO of the Utica, New York-based polling organization Zogby International, New7Wonders Foundation drove "the largest poll on record".^[6][5]After supporting the New7Wonders Foundation at the beginning of the campaign, by providing advice on nominee selection, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) by its bylaws having to record all and give equal status to the world heritage sites distanced itself from the undertaking in 2001 and again in 2007.^[7][8]

The New7Wonders Foundation, established in 2001, relied on private donations and the sale of broadcast rights and received no public funding or taxpayers' money.^[9] After the final announcement, New7Wonders said it didn't earn anything from the exercise and barely recovered its investment.^[10]

The foundation has run two subsequent programs: New7Wonders of Nature, the subject of voting until 2011.

Wonder	Location	Image	Year
Great Pyramid of Giza (honorary status)	Giza Necropolis, Egypt		2560 BC
Great Wall of China 万里长城 Wànlǐ Chángchéng	China		700 BC
Petra البتراء Al-Batrāʾ	Jordan		312 BC
The Colosseum Amphitheatrum Flavium	Rome, Italy		80 AD
Chichén Itzá Chi'ch'èen Ìitsha'	Yucatán, Mexico		600 AD
Machu Picchu Machu Pikchu	Cuzco Region, Peru		1450 AD
Taj Mahal ताज महल	Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India		1643 AD
Christ the Redeemer Cristo Redentor	Rio de Janeiro, Brazil		1931 AD

The Great Pyramid of Giza, largest and oldest of the three pyramids at the Giza Necropolis in Egypt and the only surviving (and oldest) of the original Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, was granted honorary status.

note on Refrigerator.

“A refrigerator is a common household appliance that consists of a thermally insulated compartment and a heat pump that transfer heat from the inside of the fridge to its external environment”.

Freezer:

Freezer units are used in households and in industry and commerce. Food stored at or below −18 °C (0 °F) is safe indefinitely. Most household freezers maintain temperatures from −23 to −18 °C (−9 to 0 °F), although some freezer-only units can achieve −34 °C (−29 °F) and lower.

Commercial and domestic Freezer/Refrigerator:

Commercial refrigerator and freezer units, which go by many other names, were in use for almost 40 years prior to the common home models. They used gas systems such as ammonia (R-717) or sulfur dioxide (R-764), which occasionally leaked, making them unsafe for home use.

Types of domestic refrigerators

• Compressor refrigerators are by far the most common type; they make a noticeable noise.
• Absorption refrigerators or thermo-electric Peltier units are used where quiet running is required; Peltier coolers are used in the smallest refrigerators as they have no bulky mechanism.
• Compressor and  Peltier refrigerators are powered by electricity. Absorption units can be designed to get power from any heat source. A noticeable difference between the two types is the absence of refrigerant with Peltier coolers (these use a different method of cooling). But Peltier coolers use more electricity because they are thermodynamically inefficient.
• Oil, gas (natural gas or propane) and dual power gas/electricity units are also available (typically found in RV's).
• Solar refrigerators and Thermal mass refrigerators are designed to reduce electrical consumption. Solar refrigerators have the added advantage that they do not use refrigerants that are harmful to the environment or flammable. Typical solar designs are absorption refrigerators that use ammonia as the working gas, and employ large mirrors to concentrate sufficient sunlight to reach the temperature required to free gaseous ammonia from the solvent. Most thermal mass refrigerators are designed to use electricity intermittently. As these units are heavily insulated, cooling load is limited primarily to heat introduced by new items to be refrigerated, and ambient air transfer when the unit is open. Very little power is therefore required if opened infrequently. Refrigeration units for commercial and industrial applications can be made in various size, shape or style to fit customer needs.

Other specialized cooling mechanisms may be used for cooling, but have not been applied to domestic refrigerators.

• Magnetic refrigerators are refrigerators that work on the magneto caloric effect. The cooling effect is triggered by placing a metal alloy in a magnetic field.
• Acoustic refrigerators are refrigerators that use resonant linear reciprocating motors/alternators to generate a sound that is converted to heat and cold using compressed helium gas. The heat is discarded and the cold is routed to the refrigerator

Temperature zones and ratings

• −18 °C (0 °F) (freezer)
• 0 °C (32 °F) (meat zone)
• 5 °C (41 °F) (cooling zone)
• 10 °C (50 °F) (crisper)

In Mexico, the Federal Government created the program Cambia Tu Viejo Por Uno Nuevo — Change Your Old One for A New One. The old refrigerators are recycled to recover their components — refrigerant gas, copper, glass, iron, etc.

Differentiate between internal Combustion engine and external combustion engine.

External Combustion Engine	Internal Combustion Engine
1.       Definition: An external combustion engine is a heat engine where a working fluid, contained internally, is heated by combustion in an external source, through the engine wall or a heat exchanger.	1.       Definition: As the name suggests, Combustion of air-fuel mixture takes place inside the Internal Combustion Engine and combustion products drive the shafts as in automotive engine. Similar action takes place in case of Gas Turbines.
2.       Another Definition: In an "external combustion engine" the fuel mixes with an oxidizer and burns outside the engine.	2. Another Definition: In an "internal combustion engine" the fuel mixes with an oxidizer and burns inside the engine
3. Where it Use? Steam piston engines, steam turbines, and rankine cycle fluid to gas devices are types of external combustion engines.	3. Where it use? Gas and diesel vehicle engines, jet turbines, and rocket motors are types of internal combustion engines.
4. External combustion engine run smoothly and silently.	4. Internal combustion engines are very noisy. Noise produce from continuous explosions inside the cylinder of IC engine.
5. Working pressure and temperature in external combustion is low	5. In internal combustion engine working pressure and temperature is high.
6. External combustion engine have 15-20% efficiency.	6. Internal combustion engine have 35-60% efficiency.
7. An external combustion engine requires a boiler and other components to transfer energy.	7. Internal combustion engine requires spark to work.
8. External combustion engine cannot be started instantaneously.	8. Internal combustion engine starting is quick and easy.
9. Combustion of fuel takes place outside the cylinder.	9. In internal combustion fuel takes place inside the cylinder.
10. Weight of external combustion engine is high.	10. Weight of internal combustion engine is low.
11. Cost of external combustion is very high.	11. It is less costly then external combustion engine.
12. Large space is required for external combustion engine.	12. Less space is required for internal combustion engine.

Explain briefly Carnot Cycle.

Ø  Introduction:

•       The model of Carnot engine was first designed by Nicolas Leonard Sadi Carnot in 1824.

•       So it was named after his development (Carnot)

•       It was graphically expanded by Benoit Paul Emile Chaperon in 1834.

•       Mathematically functioned by Rudolf Claudius in 1857 after that the concept of entropy was developed.

•       It is most efficient heat engine.

•       It is Reversible or Irreversible Process.

Ø  Definition:

“The Carnot engine can be thought of as most efficient heat engine”.

It consists of four types

1. Isothermal Expansion.
2. Adiabatic Expansion.
3. Isothermal Compression.
4. Adiabatic Compression.

Ø  Isothermal Expansion
“In this process, the ideal gas in the system absorbs Q(in) amount of heat from a heat source at a high temperature T(hot) expands and does work on surrounding”

Ø  Adiabatic Expansion:

“In this process, the system is thermally insulated. The gas

Continues to expands and do works on surroundings”.

Ø  Isothermal Compression

“In this process, the gas is allowed to compress reversibly and isothermally

at a lower temperature so volume decreases and pressure increases”

Adiabatic Compression:

“It is adiabatic and perfectly insulated, so surroundings

do work the gas at which back to Temperature (hot)”